Willingness to Communicate in the L2 Classroom

In speaking lessons, learners are often given similar opportunities to use English. However, their responses are often different. Some learners speak easily and take part in activities, while others avoid speaking or remain silent. These differences cannot be explained by language knowledge alone.

Researchers use the concept of Willingness to Communicate (WTC) to better understand why learners choose to speak or remain silent in class. WTC refers to a learner's readiness to speak when an opportunity appears. In foreign language classrooms, this readiness is not fixed. It can change depending on the task, the situation and the people involved (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547).

Research on first language communication introduced the idea of willingness to communicate as a rather stable personality trait. When this idea was applied to second language learning, however, researchers soon saw that this trait view was not enough. Learners who are outgoing in their first language can be very quiet in the foreign language classroom.

To address this, the L2 WTC construct was proposed. It aims to capture both more stable tendencies and the highly situational nature of communication in a second language. Instead of asking whether a learner is communicative in general, L2 WTC asks whether they are ready to initiate or continue communication at a particular moment, with a particular interlocutor, in a particular context.

In this thesis, WTC refers to how ready learners are to use spoken English in the classroom when there is a chance to do so. This readiness can be seen in behaviours such as volunteering an answer, asking a question, making a suggestion in group work or responding to a partner's idea. At the same time, silence does not always mean unwillingness. Sometimes learners choose to listen, and this can also be a form of participation. The aim here is not to force learners to speak at any cost but to understand what supports their readiness to join in.

In second language learning, willingness to communicate (WTC) refers to learners' readiness to enter communication when they have an opportunity to speak. It is not only a matter of language ability, because learners may know the answer but still choose not to speak. MacIntyre et al. (1998, p. 547) define L2 WTC as a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using the second language. In this study, WTC is understood as learners' readiness to use spoken English during classroom activities, especially through visible behaviours such as speaking first, asking questions, giving longer answers, and talking to peers.

WTC has a direct impact on how much learners speak in class. Even if they have enough vocabulary and grammar, they will not get much practice if they seldom decide to take the floor. When WTC is higher, learners are more likely to answer questions, ask for clarification and share their ideas. Over time, this gives them more opportunities to develop fluency, interaction skills and confidence.

At the classroom level, WTC is linked to overall engagement. In classes where several learners are willing to initiate and respond, speaking activities are usually more lively and interactive. In classes where most learners avoid speaking, tasks may feel flat, and the teacher ends up doing most of the talking. Understanding WTC is therefore important for individual speaking performance and for the general quality of classroom participation.

Learners' perception of their own ability to communicate in the target language is known as self-perceived communicative competence (SPCC). Although they are connected, it is not the same as their true proficiency. A learner with relatively high competency might be uncomfortable speaking and avoid taking the floor, while a learner with very restricted knowledge might feel very comfortable using what they have. SPCC serves as a link between subjective speech readiness and objective skill.

Anxiety in foreign language classrooms (FLCA) is another important component. It is sometimes characterized as a situation-specific form of anxiety that manifests during speaking exercises in language classes. FLCA can manifest as avoidance behaviors like not answering at all or responding sparingly, as well as physical signs like a shaky voice or a quicker heartbeat.

Motivation is important as well. Students may be more inclined to take chances if they believe that learning English would help them in their future academic endeavors. In reality, motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence are interrelated and can shift over time as students encounter both good and bad things.

Tasks that are too difficult, unclear or not meaningful usually lower WTC. By contrast, tasks with clear goals and topics connected to learners' lives tend to support participation. Topic familiarity is important: many learners are more willing to speak about everyday life than about abstract or unfamiliar topics.

Peer dynamics can either support or hinder WTC. Supportive partners make speaking easier, while dominant or critical peers can silence others. The teacher's attitude to errors and feedback also affects whether learners feel safe enough to take risks in speaking.

In some learning cultures, students are expected to listen quietly and not question the teacher, which may reduce WTC. In other cultures, expressing opinions and asking questions is encouraged. Attitudes toward English in the wider society also play a part. The Polish primary school setting in this study has its own features, such as limited exposure to English outside the classroom, fixed small groups and a curriculum that must cover multiple skills.

In this study, MacIntyre et al.'s (1998, p.547) model is used as the main theoretical framework, but it is interpreted through three classroom-relevant dimensions: task conditions, emotions, and learners' self-perceptions.

The apex of the pyramid represents the actual act of communication, where the learner either speaks or remains silent, which is why WTC is not just a stable personal trait but the outcome of multiple interacting influences.

Later research has extended this model and applied it in different EFL contexts. Studies from various countries show that WTC can change quickly depending on grouping, teacher behaviour, task type and learners' current emotional state. In some settings, learners appear more willing to speak in pairs than in whole-class interaction; in others, group dynamics play a stronger role.

Working with primary school learners suggests that emotional safety and enjoyment are especially important at this age. Positive experiences with tasks may matter more than high levels of linguistic sophistication. The present study builds on these ideas by focusing on a small group of Polish learners who repeatedly engage with the set of speaking tasks.

Mystkowska-Wiertelak and Pawlak (2017, pp. 119–123) also argue that WTC in instructed language learning should be examined from both broader and moment-by-moment perspectives. This is useful for classroom research because learners' readiness to speak may change across lessons, tasks, and interactional situations.

Although there is now a substantial body of research on WTC, self-perceived communicative competence, and anxiety, several gaps remain. Most studies focus on older learners, such as secondary school students or university students, often in relatively privileged educational settings. Much less attention has been given to young learners in ordinary primary school classrooms.

There is also still limited classroom-based research showing how a repeated set of speaking activities can shape young learners' willingness to communicate over time. While some studies discuss task type or planning support in general, fewer studies follow how learners respond to repeated speaking routines across several classroom cycles.

Finally, classroom-based studies are often reported as isolated cases and are not always clearly linked back to broader theoretical models such as MacIntyre et al.'s pyramid. This makes it harder to see how local interventions can inform theory. The present study addresses these issues by following four primary school learners in Poland as they participate in a repeated set of classroom speaking activities. By tracing changes in their participation and emotional reactions over time, the study aims to show how tasks, emotions, and self-beliefs connect to WTC in a real classroom context.

In classroom settings, WTC is often visible through learners' behaviour. Learners with higher WTC are more likely to volunteer answers, ask questions, or start speaking without being directly invited. In contrast, learners with lower WTC may wait to be called on or avoid speaking whenever possible. Accordingly, the study focuses on three closely related constructs that help capture learners' willingness to communicate in the classroom: self-perceived communicative competence (SPCC), foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), and observed WTC-related behaviour.